Race and intelligence are two human characteristics that have been studied together to determine whether and how one relates to the other. Contemporary debate focuses on the nature, causes, and rectifications of ethnic An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage that is real or assumed- sharing cultural characteristics This shared heritage may be based upon putative common ancestry, history, kinship, religion, language, shared territory, nationality or physical appearance. Members of an ethnic group are differences in intelligence test scores. The question, "What are the relative roles of nature and nurture The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities versus personal experiences ("nurture", i.e. empiricism or behaviorism) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits in causing individual and group differences in cognitive ability?" is fundamental to understanding the debate.^[1] The field has long been fraught with controversy. ^[2][3][4] because theories and hypotheses on racial differences in intelligence are based on correlations in test score and socio-economic achievement differences and not on genetic or neural evidence, ^[5] and correlation does not prove causation "Correlation does not imply causation" is a phrase used in science and statistics to emphasize that correlation between two variables does not automatically imply that one causes the other.^[6]

Controversy centers on the results of intelligence testing An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The term "IQ", from the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was devised by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912 as a proposed method of scoring children's intelligence tests such as those developed by studies conducted since the 1950s in the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, Western Europe Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the westernmost region of Europe, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a cultural entity—the region lying west of Central Europe. Another definition was created during the Cold War, and other industrialized nations.^[7] Controversies endure, too, over the nature of race The term race or racial group usually refers to the categorization of humans into populations or ancestral groups on the basis of various sets of heritable characteristics. The physical features commonly seen as indicating race are salient visual traits such as skin color, cranial or facial features and hair texture. Conceptions of race, as well, the purpose of intelligence Intelligence is an umbrella term describing a property of the mind including related abilities, such as the capacities for abstract thought, understanding, communication, reasoning, learning, learning from the experience, planning, and problem solving and whether it can be quantified and whether the intelligence quotient An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The term "IQ", from the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was devised by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912 as a proposed method of scoring children's intelligence tests such as those developed by (IQ) is a culturally biased measure.

Contents 1 History 2 Contemporary issues 2.1 The 1970s debates 2.2 The 1990s debates 2.3 Policy debates 3 Test score difference 3.1 United States 3.2 Worldwide 4 Genetic and environmental factors 4.1 What is heritability? 4.2 Genetic hypothesis 4.3 Environmental effects 4.3.1 The Flynn effect 4.3.2 Health 4.3.3 Stereotype threat 4.3.4 Quality of education 4.3.5 Racial discrimination in education 4.3.6 Caste-like minorities 4.4 Viewpoints of notable scientists and researchers 5 Criticisms 5.1 Outdated methodology 5.2 Utility of research 5.3 Test construction 5.4 Source of funding 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links 8.1 Collective statements 8.2 Review papers 8.3 Others

History

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page.

The opinion that there are differences in the brain structures or sizes of different racial and ethnic groups was widely held and studied during the 19th and early 20th centuries.^[8] During this time period, research on race and intelligence was often used to claim that one race was superior to another, justifying the poor status and treatment of the "inferior" race.^[9]

In a chapter called "Innately Inferior or Equal?" in his book, The Struggle for Equality Princeton University Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution historian James M. McPherson writes, "Science, especially ethnology and anthropology, commanded a large and growing influence in the mid-nineteenth century. Ethnology in the hands of Josiah Nott, Louis Agassiz Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz was a paleontologist, glaciologist, geologist and a prominent innovator in the study of the Earth's natural history. He grew up in Switzerland and became a professor of natural history at University of Neuchâtel. Later, he accepted a professorship at Harvard University in the United States, Samuel G. Morton, and George Gliddon (a group that came to be known as the "American School" of anthropology), who taught that the various races of mankind constituted separate species with the Negro at the bottom of the scale, had become a major weapon in the defense of slavery."

To refute the "American School" of anthropology, McPherson wrote that:

...abolitionists quoted prominent European naturalists who argued for the unity and equality of races. In 1861, for example, the Anti-Slavery Standard published a review of L'Unite de l'Espece Humaine, by M. de Quatrefarges, professor of natural history and ethnology at the Museum of Natural History in Paris. Using the classifications of Linnaeus and Lamarck, M. de Quatrefarges defined mankind as a single species; racial differences were the result of varieties within the species developed by conditions of environment and transmitted by heredity. M. de Quatrefarges used his vast knowledge to deny the existence of any fundamental and immutable differences in the mental capacities of various races. (Nov. 9, 1861, N.A.S. Standard) ^[10]

In his most recent book on the African American Predominantly Protestant ; some Roman Catholics. Minorities practice Islam and other religions experience, historian Leon Litwack, winner of the National Book Award The National Book Awards are a set of American literary awards. Started in 1950, the Awards are presented annually to American authors for literature published in the prior year. In 1988 the National Book Foundation, a nonprofit organization which now oversees and manages the National Book Awards , was established. The mission of the National Book and the Pulitzer Prize The Pulitzer Prize is a U.S. award for achievements in newspaper and online journalism, literature and musical composition. It was established by Hungarian-American publisher Joseph Pulitzer and is administered by Columbia University in New York City. According to the administrators of the Pulitzer Prize the correct pronunciation of the name has written:

During the years 1890 to 1915, in response to perceptions of a "New Negro," born in freedom, undisciplined by slavery Slavery is a system in which people are the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand wages. In some societies it was legal for an owner to kill a slave; in others it was a crime to kill a slave and unschooled in racial etiquette, and in response to growing doubts that this new generation could be trusted to stay in its place without legal force, the white South denied blacks a political voice through disenfranchisement Disfranchisement is the revocation of the right of suffrage (the right to vote) of a person or group of people, or rendering a person's vote less effective, or ineffective. Disfranchisement may occur explicitly through law, or implicitly by intimidation or by placing unreasonable registration or identification impediments in the path of voters, imposed rigid patterns of racial segregation (Jim Crow CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR), sustained an economic system–sharecropping Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land . This should not be confused with a crop fixed rent contract, in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a fixed amount of crop per unit of land (e.g., 1 T/ha). Sharecropping and tenantry–that left little room for ambition or hope, refused blacks equal educational resources (W.E.B. Du Bois William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was an American civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, sociologist, historian, author, and editor. Historian David Levering Lewis wrote, "In the course of his long, turbulent career, W. E. B. Du Bois attempted virtually every possible solution to the problem of twentieth-century racism— scholarship,) called it "enforced ignorance"), manipulated and perverted the judicial system, sustained extraordinary and unprecedented levels of violence and brutality, and disseminated racial caricatures and pseudo-scientific theories that reinforced and comforted whites in their racial beliefs and practices. This was the work not of racial demagogues Demagogy or demagoguery is a strategy for gaining political power by appealing to the prejudices, emotions, fears and expectations of the public—typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalist, populist or religious themes. What qualifies as demagogy has been the subject of debate and ambiguity since Aristophanes but of the "best people"–the most educated, the most refined, the most respected. ^[11]

Sir Francis Galton Sir Francis Galton FRS , cousin of Sir Douglas Galton, half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English Victorian polymath, anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician. He was knighted in 1909, a psychometrician Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. The field is primarily concerned with the construction and validation of measurement instruments, such as questionnaires, tests, and and polymath A polymath is a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different subject areas. In less formal terms, a polymath (or polymathic person) may simply be someone who is very knowledgeable. Most ancient scientists were polymaths by today's standards (1822–1911), spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to heredity Heredity is the passing of traits to offspring . This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause a species to evolve. The study of heredity in biology is called genetics, and eugenics Eugenics is the study and practice of selective breeding applied to humans, with the aim of improving the species. In a historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities." Advocates of eugenics sought to counter what they regarded as dysgenic dynamics within the human gene pool. Specifically,.^[12] Galton claimed from his field observations in Africa that the African people were significantly below Anglo-Saxons' position in the normal frequency distribution of general mental ability; these claims continue to spark controversy in academia.^[13]

In The Struggle for Equality McPherson replied, "Most modern sociologists and psychologists agreed that discrimination, segregation, and 'culutural deprivation' rather than innate inferiority are responsible for the inferior status which the Negro occupies in American society. Abolitionists advanced this argument more than a century ago. Like modern sociologists, they maintained that environment, not racial deficiency, was the cause of the Negro's inferiority."

Prejudice and discrimination against the free Negro were debilitating enough, but the effects of slavery were worse still. "Take any race you please, French, English, Irish, or Scotch," said Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass was an American abolitionist, women's suffragist, editor, orator, author, statesman, minister and reformer. Escaping from slavery, he made strong contributions to the abolitionist movement, and achieved a public career that led to his being called "The Sage of Anacostia" and "The Lion of Anacostia". Douglass; "subject them to slavery for ages--regard and treat them every where, every way, as property. ...Let them be loaded with chains, scarred with the whip, branded with hot irons, sold in the market, kept in ignorance... and I venture to say that the same doubt would spring up concerning either of them, which now confronts the Negro." p. 149 McPherson.

The scientific debate on the contribution of nature versus nurture The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities versus personal experiences ("nurture", i.e. empiricism or behaviorism) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits to individual and group differences in intelligence can be traced back to at least the mid-19th century.^[14] Beginning in the 1930s, race difference research and hereditarianism — the belief that genetics Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of are the primary cause of differences in intelligence among human groups — began to fall out of favor in psychology and anthropology after major internal debates.^[15] By 1961, the mainstream view was that there were no race differences in intelligence, or if there were, they were solely the result of environmental factors.^[16]

Contemporary issues

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The most controversial and most publicized part of the debate is whether group IQ differences also reflect a genetic component. Hereditarianism hypothesizes that a genetic contribution to intelligence could include genes linked to neuron structure or function, brain size Neuroscience and intelligence concerns the various neurological factors that may be responsible for the variation of intelligence within a species or between different species. Much of the work in this field is concerned with the variation in human intelligence, but other intelligent species such as the non-human primates and cetaceans are also of or metabolism, or other physiological differences which could vary with biogeographic ancestry.

The 1970s debates

The modern debate was prompted by psychology professor Arthur Jensen Arthur Robert Jensen is a Professor Emeritus of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Jensen is known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, which is concerned with how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another's 1969 publication of the controversial article, "How Much Can We Boost IQ and School Achievement?".^[17]

All we are left with are various lines of evidence, no one of which is definitive alone, but which, viewed together, make it a not unreasonable hypothesis that genetic factors are strongly implicated in the average negro-white intelligence difference. The preponderance of evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesis, which, of course, does not exclude the influence of environment or its interaction with genetic factors.^[17]

According to Peter Singer Peter Albert David Singer is an Australian philosopher. He is the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, and laureate professor at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE), University of Melbourne. He specialises in applied ethics, approaching ethical issues from a secular preference utilitarian, the article was widely reported in the popular press "as an attempt to defend racism on scientific grounds".^[18]

Physicist William Shockley William Bradford Shockley was an American physicist and inventor. Along with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, Shockley co-invented the transistor, for which all three were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. Shockley's attempts to commercialize a new transistor design in the 1950s and 1960s led to California's "Silicon Valley& spent much of his later life focused on the questions of race, intelligence, and eugenics Eugenics is the study and practice of selective breeding applied to humans, with the aim of improving the species. In a historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities." Advocates of eugenics sought to counter what they regarded as dysgenic dynamics within the human gene pool. Specifically,. He began giving speeches on population problems and published several controversial papers arguing that intelligence is primarily hereditary.^[19][20] He postulated that the higher reproduction rate of those with lower intelligence was having a dysgenic Dysgenics is the study of factors producing the accumulation and perpetuation of defective or disadvantageous genes and traits in offspring of a particular population or species. Dysgenic mutations have been studied in animals such as the mouse and the fruit fly. The term dysgenics was first used as an antonym of eugenics — the social philosophy effect on society and proposed that individuals with IQs An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The term "IQ", from the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was devised by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912 as a proposed method of scoring children's intelligence tests such as those developed by below 100 be paid to undergo voluntary sterilization Sterilization is a surgical technique leaving a male or female unable to reproduce. It is a method of birth control. For non-surgical causes of sterility, see infertility. Biologists and geneticists criticized his theories and compared his arguments for eugenics with the rationale used by the Nazis Nazism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany. It was a unique variety of fascism that involved biological racism and anti-Semitism. Nazism presented itself as politically syncretic, incorporating policies, tactics and philosophies from right- and left-wing ideologies; in practice, Nazism was a far right form of for their racial policies. He was attacked in the media and in scientific journals. Shockley described his work on the issue as the most important of his career.^[21]

Population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza is an Italian population geneticist born in Genoa, who has been a professor at Stanford University since 1970 (now emeritus) on several occasions publicly debated Arthur Jensen and William Shockley arguing that environmental factors could explain the black-white IQ gap.^[22] In 1981, Stephen Jay Gould Stephen Jay Gould was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation. Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In the latter years published The Mismeasure of Man The Mismeasure of Man is a 1981 book written by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould . The book is a history and critique of the methods and motivations underlying biological determinism, the belief that "the social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn, which argued against the concept of g, the general factor of cognitive ability.

The 1990s debates

The question of whether group differences in average IQ are purely social, economic, and cultural in nature or whether genetic factors may also be involved has continued to receive wide media coverage; this prompted a number of academic bodies to make public statements on their views. For example, the American Anthropological Association The American Anthropological Association is the world's largest professional organization of scholars and practitioners in the field of anthropology. With 11,000 members, the Arlington, Virginia based association includes archaeologists, cultural anthropologists, biological (or physical) anthropologists, linguists and applied anthropologists in issued a declaration that "differentiating species into biologically defined 'races' has proven meaningless and unscientific as a way of explaining variation,"^[23] while the American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the U.S. and is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 152,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students and has an annual budget of around $115m. The American Psychological released a statement in which they acknowledged the reality of inter-group IQ differences, but that they are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors.^[24] The claim that there are genetic causes for the differences in average IQ scores of different races has been forwarded by scholars such as Charles Murray Charles Alan Murray is an American libertarian political scientist, author, and columnist currently[update] working as a fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank in Washington, DC. He is best known for his controversial book The Bell Curve, co-authored with the late Richard Herrnstein in 1994, which discusses the role, Michael Levin, and J. Philippe Rushton. Their research has been criticized by other scholars such as Stephen Jay Gould Stephen Jay Gould was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation. Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In the latter years,^[25] Richard Levin, Richard Lewontin Richard Charles "Dick" Lewontin is an American evolutionary biologist, geneticist and social commentator. A leader in developing the mathematical basis of population genetics and evolutionary theory, he pioneered the notion of using techniques from molecular biology such as gel electrophoresis to apply to questions of genetic variation^[26] and Joseph L. Graves.^[27]

The publication of The Bell Curve The Bell Curve is a controversial, best-selling 1994 book by the late Harvard psychologist Richard J. Herrnstein and American Enterprise Institute political scientist Charles Murray. Its central point is that intelligence is a better predictor of many factors including financial income, job performance, unwed pregnancy, and crime than parents', a best-selling 1994 book by American ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language psychologist Richard Herrnstein Richard J. Herrnstein was an American researcher in animal learning in the Skinnerian tradition. He was one of the founders of quantitative analysis of behavior. His major research finding as an experimental psychologist is called "matching law" -- the tendency of animals to allocate their choices in direct proportion to the rewards they and American Enterprise Institute The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research is a conservative think tank founded in 1943. Its stated mission is "to defend the principles and improve the institutions of American freedom and democratic capitalism—limited government, private enterprise, individual liberty and responsibility, vigilant and effective defense political scientist Charles Murray Charles Alan Murray is an American libertarian political scientist, author, and columnist currently[update] working as a fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank in Washington, DC. He is best known for his controversial book The Bell Curve, co-authored with the late Richard Herrnstein in 1994, which discusses the role, which included a discussion of racial differences in intelligence, received much attention in the popular press and ignited renewed debate within academia and amongst the general public. Its central point is that intelligence is a better predictor of many factors including financial income, job performance, unwed pregnancy, and crime than parents' socioeconomic status or education level. Also, the book argued that those with high intelligence (the "cognitive elite") are becoming separated from the general population of those with average and below-average intelligence, and that this was a dangerous social trend. Much of the controversy concerned Chapters 13 and 14, in which the authors wrote about the enduring racial differences in intelligence and discussed implications of those differences. They write in the introduction to Chapter 13 that "The debate about whether and how much genes and environment have to do with ethnic differences remains unresolved. The universality of the contrast in nonverbal and verbal skills between East Asians and European whites suggests, without quite proving, genetic roots."

Shortly after publication, many people rallied both in criticism and defense of the book. Some critics denounced the book and its authors as supporting scientific racism. A number of critical texts, including The Bell Curve Debate and The Mismeasure of Man (second edition), were published in response to the book. Several collective statements were released by groups of scholars.

The American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs in 1995 established a special task force to publish an investigative report on the research presented in the book. The report, titled "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"^[24] and published in the February 1996 issue of American Psychologist, agreed with some of the book's statements on intelligence,^[28] but disagreed with the book's genetic implications:

The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites (about one standard deviation, although it may be diminishing) does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status. Explanations based on factors of caste and culture may be appropriate, but so far have little direct empirical support. There is certainly no such support for a genetic interpretation. At present, no one knows what causes this differential.^[29]

The January 1997 issue of American Psychologist published an article with eleven critical responses to the American Psychological Association (APA) report, most of which agreed with the substance of the report, but suggested ways in which the report could have been improved. According to the report's lead author, only Lynn and Rushton "dispute[d] the task force's conclusion that there is no direct evidence for a genetic interpretation of the Black—White IQ difference."^[30] The APA report concluded with a call for more reflection in debates on intelligence and for a "shared and sustained effort" in more research to answer the many unanswered questions that remain.

A collective statement titled "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" was published in the Wall Street Journal on December 13, 1994.^[31] It was written by psychology professor Linda Gottfredson, and signed by Gottfredson and 51 other professors specializing in intelligence and related fields. It listed 25 statements which claimed to uphold findings on the subject of intelligence research discussed in the The Bell Curve. This statement was reprinted in the psychology journal Intelligence in 1997 with additional information and a bibliography. Regarding the cause of racial-ethnic group differences in IQ, the statement says:

There is no definitive answer to why IQ bell curves differ across racial-ethnic groups. The reasons for these IQ differences between groups may be markedly different from the reasons for why individuals differ among themselves within any particular group (whites or blacks or Asians). In fact, it is wrong to assume, as many do, that the reason why some individuals in a population have high IQs but others have low IQs must be the same reason why some populations contain more such high (or low) IQ individuals than others. Most experts believe that environment is important in pushing the bell curves apart, but that genetics could be involved too.^[32]

In 1994, the American Anthropological Association published a statement, declaring the organization was:

deeply concerned by recent public discussions which imply that intelligence is biologically determined by race. Repeatedly challenged by scientists, nevertheless these ideas continue to be advanced. Such discussions distract public and scholarly attention from and diminish support for the collective challenge to ensure equal opportunities for all people, regardless of ethnicity or phenotypic variation.^[33]

Policy debates

See also: Intelligence and public policy

Public policy implications of IQ and race research are one of the greatest sources of controversy surrounding this issue. Regardless of the source of the IQ gap, most educators agree that it must be addressed; they often advocate equitable funding for education.^[34][35] An achievement gap refers to the observed disparity on a number of educational measures between the performance of groups of students, including groups defined by race or ethnicity.

Some proponents of a genetic interpretation of the IQ gap, such as Rushton and Jensen (2005a) and Gottfredson (2005b), have sometimes argued that their interpretation does not in itself demand any particular policy response: while a conservative/libertarian commentator^[36] may feel the results justify, for example, reductions in affirmative action, a liberal commentator may argue from a Rawlsian point of view (that genetic advantages are undeserved and unjust) for substantial affirmative action.^[37] Since all races have representatives at all levels of the IQ curve, this means any policy based on low IQ affects members of all races.

In the book Practical Ethics, philosopher Peter Singer wrote that:

Let us suppose that the genetic hypothesis turns out to be correct... I believe that the implications of this supposition are less drastic than they are often supposed to be... First, the genetic hypothesis does not imply that we should reduce our efforts to overcome other causes of inequality between people... Perhaps we should put special efforts into helping those who start from a position of disadvantage, so that we end with a more egalitarian result. Second, the fact that the average IQ of one racial group is a few points higher than that of another does not allow anyone to say that all members of the higher IQ group have higher IQs... The point is that these figures are averages and say nothing about individuals... The third reason... is simply that, as we saw earlier, the principle of equality is not based on any actual equality that all people share. I have argued that the only defensible basis for the principle of equality is equal consideration of interests... Equal status does not depend on intelligence. Racists who maintain the contrary are in peril of being forced to kneel before the next genius they encounter.

Policies focused on geographical regions or nations may have disproportionate influences on certain racial groups and on cognitive development.^[who?] Differences in health care, nutrition, regulation of environmental toxins, and geographic distribution of diseases and control strategies between the developing world and developed nations have all been subjects of policies or policy recommendations (see Health and intelligence).

Test score difference

United States

The observed differences in average test score achievement between ethnic groups varies depending on the populations studied and the type of tests used. Self defined black and white United States citizens have been the subjects of the greatest number of studies. Black-White average IQ differences appear to increase with age, averaging nearly 17 points by age 24.^[38] According to James Flynn, the overall average Black-White gap has reduced by one third over the last 30 years.^[38] A large (21,260 children) and probably the most recent (1998) study found that the Black-White gap for young children in reading and math scores was much smaller than in earlier studies.^[39] Black-White differences on school achievement tests shrunk over the last 30 years, but some of the improvements did not continue through the 1990s. The average black-white IQ difference also varies depending on test content. For example, two subsections of the WISC IQ test, known as forward and reverse digit-span, ask children to repeat a long series of numbers either forwards or backwards. The black-white difference on forward digit span is relatively small, while the difference on reverse digit span is relatively large. Across a battery of tests, the size of the Black-White gap is correlated with the extent to which the tests measure the psychometric factor g, which also accounts for most of the variation in interindividual differences in IQ test performance.^[40] Using a variety of statistical techniques, Dolan and colleagues have found that the black-white IQ gap can be accounted for by differences in g and the other interindividual ability factors measured by IQ tests, and also that IQ tests measure roughly the same mix of abilities in both black and white populations.^[41][42][43] Gaps are seen in other tests of cognitive ability or aptitude, including university admission exams such as the SAT and GRE as well as employment tests for corporate settings and the military.^[44]

The IQ distributions of other racial and ethnic groups in the United States are less well studied. Hispanic and Native American populations, including Arctic Natives,^[45][46] tend to score worse on average than White populations but better on average than Black populations.^[47] East Asian populations may score higher on average than White populations in the United States as they do elsewhere.^[48] A 1960 study of 1236 American teenagers calculated six IQ measures for Jews relative to white gentiles. The results found that the relative IQ of American Jews varied from a low of 91.3 (visual reasoning) to a high of 109.7 (Mathematics).^[49][50] A recent review by Lynn (2004) used a 10 word vocabulary test to estimate the IQ of American Jews. The population of 150 Jews scored half a standard deviation above the 5300 white gentiles.^[51][52]

For each of these populations, there is some evidence that the mixture of ability factors that distinguish individuals are differentially distributed between groups. For example, East Asian populations tend to outscore White populations in performance IQ, whereas the test score differences skew towards higher verbal IQ for Ashkenazi-White differences. However, the mixture of abilities within groups appears to be nearly identical across many ethnic groups.^[53] The stability of these differences is also less well studied than Black-White differences.

Worldwide

According to Richard Lynn, J. Philippe Rushton, and others, IQ test score differences are observed cross-culturally and around the world. Lynn has published three books summarizing IQ test scores from around the world.^[54] The inaccuracy of the cross cultural IQ scores is well documented, but many scholars use the results as an estimate of worldwide IQ scores.^{[55][56][57][58]} Lynn's meta-analysis lists East Asians (105), Europeans (99), Inuit (91), Southeast Asians and Amerindians (87 each), Pacific Islanders (85), Middle Easterners (including South Asians and North Africans) (84), sub-Saharan Africans (67), and Australian Aborigines (62).^[59][60][61] International achievement test scores, including TIMSS and PISA, have also been used to estimate average IQ worldwide with similar results where data is available.^{[58][62][63][64]} The very low IQ scores reported for sub-Saharan African populations is especially controversial. For example, Wicherts argues that the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans is poorly measured and is more likely 78.^[65] Sternberg, a critic of Rushton and Lynn, reported an average IQ of 70 for "young adolescents" in Kenya.^[66] There is a paradox from IQ studies in Africa that has yet to be resolved. Europeans with an IQ of 70 are considered mentally retarded. However, the Africans found to have an IQ of 70 were perfectly normal with the apparent ability to function normally in their social environment. This has led to questions of the validity of these IQ tests^[67][68] A 1995 study published in the Journal of Nutrition concluded that IQ scores of children in the West Indies are depressed to some extent by environmental conditions, such as macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies^[69][70] and even blood lead levels.^[71] The study suggested the existence of broader links between malnutrition and IQ levels across the developing world as a whole.^[72]

Southern Italian immigrants in the US scored below 80 on IQ tests in the early 20th century^[73] but had improved their average scores in later decades, bringing the validity of theories of genetically fixed and racially based IQ into further question.

Genetic and environmental factors

The cause(s) of group average IQ test score differences are not known but hypotheses have been proposed. Many scholars have offered descriptions of the variety of hypotheses that have been proposed. These descriptions usually distinguish between those hypotheses which invoke a contribution of genetic factors and those which solely invoke environmental (i.e., non-genetic) factors. Some descriptions of the positions are themselves controversial. In a review published in 2007, Hunt and Carlson listed four positions.^[74] The first position, attributed to Jensen and Rushton, is that group differences in IQ reflect differences in intelligence that are "due in substantial part to genetically determined differences in brain structure and/or function"^[74] The second position, attributed to Ogbu and Sowell, is that the differences in intelligence test scores are due to social factors. The third view, attributed to Sternberg and colleagues, is that the use of IQ scores to argue for differences in intelligence is an inappropriate use of tests in different groups. The fourth position, attributed to Fish and others, is that there is no such thing as race: "a term motivated by social concerns and not a scientific concept".^[74]

Prominent proponents of the genetic hypothesis are predominately psychologists or experts in intelligence testing, such as Charles Spearman, Hans Eysenck, Arthur Jensen, J. Philippe Rushton, Linda Gottfredson, Richard Herrnstein, and David C. Rowe. A few prominent proponents have come from other fields, such as political scientist Charles Murray, evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa, and philosophers Michael Levin and Neven Sesardic. Not all proponents share the same views, nor have all of their views been constant throughout their careers. Prominent critics come from many backgrounds, and hold a diversity of views. They include psychologists and experts in intelligence testing such as James Flynn (prior to his work on IQ Flynn was a political scientist), Ulric Neisser, Robert Sternberg, and a number of less well known psychometricians who criticize the underlying IQ test data. Other critics include economists Thomas Sowell and Roland G. Fryer Jr. Anthropologists such as Ashley Montagu, Leonard Lieberman, and Jonathan Marks argue that "race" is a social and not a biological concept. For example Marks (1996) argues that the eugenics movement of the 1920s identified Ashkenazi Jews from Europe as intellectually inferior due to their genetics^{[Need quotation on talk to verify][page needed]}, but that Murray and Herrnstein claim this group as a "cognitive elite" in The Bell Curve, concluding that "race" is a social construct that does not reflect underlying biology.^[75] Sociologists John Ogbu, Claude S. Fischer and Troy Duster, paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, geneticist Richard C. Lewontin and evolutionary biologist and physiologist Jared Diamond also oppose the genetic hypothesis.

The genetic hypothesis has been characterized as inherently racist. Eric Turkheimer, a professor of clinical psychology at the University of Virginia, argues that proponents of a genetic contribution, whom he calls "racialists", deserve "vigorous disapprobation" and do not deserve "respect".^[76] Turkheimer writes that he disagrees with his colleagues, such as Flynn and Ceci, who "agree that the question is a legitimate matter for scientific inquiry, to be settled by cool-headed evaluation of the empirical evidence".^[76] Flynn does not accept Turkheimer's arguments.^[77] Rushton and Jensen argue that the policy issues should be regarded as separate from the academic inquiry.^[78]

What is heritability?

See also: Heritability of IQ An environmental factor that varies between groups but not within groups can cause group differences in a trait that is otherwise 100% heritable. The height of this "ordinary genetically varied corn" is 100% heritable, but the difference between the groups is totally environmental. This is because the nutrient solution varies between populations, but not within populations.^[79]

The consensus among intelligence researchers is that IQ differences between individuals of the same racial-ethnic group reflect real, functionally and socially significant, and substantially heritable differences in intelligence.^{[80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88]}

Concordance rates for IQ from twin studies and other study designs consistently fall in the range of 50% to 80%, with the estimated heritability in young (preschool) children in the lower range and adults in the higher range.

Critics have also questioned the interpretation of heritability as a whole. Lewontin suggests that some genotypes are more influenced by environments than others, leading to the possibility that populations that have similar genetic variance in the same environment can have different heritabilities because of their different genotypes.^[89] David Layzer (1974) contends that the development of a trait can be influenced by genetic differences qualitatively and that heritability estimates cannot measure such qualitative differences, as such it is possible that even with a heritability of close to 100% it is possibly for phenotypic variance to be due largely to environment.^[90]

As a comparison, schizophrenia is estimated to be at least 70% heritable, of which 30% of the actual genes have been accounted for.^{[91][92][93][94]}

Genetic hypothesis

Socioeconomic status (SES) varies both between and within populations, but Black-White differences in IQ persist among the children of parents matched for SES, and the gap is largest among the children of wealthiest and best educated parents.^[95]

Much of the research on explaining group differences stems from an observation promoted first by Arthur Jensen and later James Flynn and others regarding an environmental explanation for group differences. According to Jensen^[96] the very high within-group heritability of IQ (within both white and black populations) presents a problem for environmental explanations of group differences in IQ. They consider two general classes of environmental factors: common environmental factors and X-factors. Common environmental factors vary within and between populations. X-factors vary between populations, but do not vary substantially within populations. They first consider common environmental factors. To account for a 1 SD B-W IQ gap only in terms of common environmental factors would require very large environmental differences. For example, if the within-group heritability of IQ is 80%, then a B-W IQ difference of 2.24 SD in common environmental factors is required. For a heritability of 40%, a difference of 1.29 SD is required. Jensen and Flynn agree that it is an empirical question whether common environmental factors that influence IQ differ between whites and blacks to such an extent, and both agree that most commonly suggested environmental factors do not. Jensen believes that empirical evidence supports the view that the B-W IQ gap is caused by both common environmental factors and genetic factors. Flynn disagrees and believes that empirical evidence supports the view that the B-W IQ gap is caused by yet unrecognized environmental factors.^[97]

The alternative to common environmental factors is to hypothesize that X-factors account for the B-W IQ gap. A frequently-cited example from Lewontin describes the effect of a hypothetical X-factor. Imagine that the height of "ordinary genetically varied corn" is 100% heritable when grown in a uniform environment. Further imagine that two populations of corn are grown: one in a normal nutrient environment and the other in a deficient nutrient environment. Consequently, the average height of the corn grown in the deficient nutrient environment is less than the average height of the corn grown in the normal environment. In such a scenario, the within-group heritability of height is 100% in both populations, but the substantial difference between groups are due entirely to environmental factors. The quality of the nutrient is an "X-factor" in the language of Jensen and Flynn. With respect to the B-W IQ gap, Jensen suggests that effects associated with racism (both overt and institutionalized racism) might be X-factors. Flynn believes that attributing the B-W gap to the effects of racism is incorrect, because the most plausible ways in which discrimination could affect IQ are themselves common environmental factors. These may include psychological effects such as stereotype threat; biological effects such as poor nutrition, health care and living close to toxic environments; and educational effects such as a lack of good schools. Instead, Flynn and his colleague William Dickens have developed more complicated models to explain the black-white gap in terms of environmental factors. One initial motivation of the Dickens-Flynn theory was Flynn's observation that IQ test scores have been rising over time in countries around the world – termed the Flynn effect. Flynn and others believe an explanation for the Flynn effect may elucidate the cause of the B-W gap. Jensen and others disagree.

A few of the notable proponents of the partly genetic hypothesis are Raymond B. Cattell, Arthur Jensen and Hans Eysenck.

Rushton and Jensen examined 10 categories of research evidence from around the world to contrast "a hereditarian model" (50% genetic-50% cultural) and a culture-only model (0% genetic-100% cultural). Their article "Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability" was published in the APA journal Psychology, Public Policy and Law showing evidence that they believe supports the hereditarian model.^[98][99] Rushton and Jensen (2005a) believe that the best explanation for the gap is that 50%-80% of the group differences in average US IQ is genetic.^[100]

Other evidence, such as the Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study, certain racial admixture studies, behavior genetic modeling of group differences, "life-history" traits, and evolutionary explanations have also been proposed to indicate a genetic contribution to the IQ gaps and explain how these arose.^[101]

The decoding of the human genome has enabled scientists to search for sections of the genome that contribute to cognitive abilities. Current studies using Quantitative trait loci have yielded little success in the search for genes influencing intelligence. Robert Plomin is confident that QTLs responsible for the variation in IQ scores exist, but that more powerful tools of analysis will be required to detect them.^[102]

A 2005 literature review article on the links between race and intelligence in American Psychologist stated that no gene has been shown to be linked to intelligence, "so attempts to provide a compelling genetic link of race to intelligence are not feasible at this time".^[6] However, in 2007 the New York Times reported preliminary results suggesting that some genes which influence IQ may be distributed unequally between races.^[103] Some researchers have expressed reluctance to investigate possible links between genes and intelligence, due to the controversy it can produce.^[104]

Environmental effects

Critics of the significantly genetic view, such as Robert Sternberg, argue that these studies are either flawed and thus inconclusive, or else that they support a primarily environment (<20% genetic) hypothesis.^[105] For example, Dolan and Hamaker (2001) argue that the statistical methods linking the Black-White gap to g are insufficient. They reanalyzed the data from several earlier studies and concluded that Spearman's hypothesis is not an "empirically established fact" (i.e., that Black-White IQ differences may be due to differences in common factors other than g) due to insufficient power in the data to choose between alternative models. "This leaves the validity of Spearman's hypothesis, considered a central justification for the genetic explanation, an unresolved question." However, they did confirm that the Black-White IQ gap is not due to measurement artifacts, and is instead due to some measured factor that varies both within and between groups.

Nisbett (2005) argues that many studies find results that do not support the genetic hypothesis. They include studies on IQ and skin color that reported that the average correlation between skin color and IQ is .1 (the average correlation between IQ and judged “Negroidness” of features is even lower); IQ and self-reported European ancestry; IQ and blood groups showing degree of European Ancestry; IQ among children in post WWII Germany born to black and white American soldiers; and IQ among mixed-race children born to either a black or a white mother. He argues that these are direct tests of the genetic hypothesis and of more value than indirect variables, such as skull size and reaction time. He argues that "There is not a shred of evidence in this literature, which draws on studies having a total of five very different designs, that the gap has a genetic basis." He argues further that many intervention and adoption studies also find results that do not support the genetic hypothesis. He also argues "that the Black-White IQ gap has lessened considerably in recent decades."^[106] Hunt and Carlson^[48] argue that Nisbett's interpretations are far too strong in light of problems with these studies that have been recognized for decades.^[107] Gottfredson writes that the studies Nisbett cites "actually lack the ability to rule out any hypothesis at all, genetic or not".^[108]

Dickens (2005) states that "Although the direct evidence on the role of environment is not definitive, it mostly suggests that genetic differences are not necessary to explain racial differences. Advocates of the hereditarian position have therefore turned to indirect evidence...The indirect evidence on the role of genes in explaining the black-white gap does not tell us how much of the gap genes explain and may be of no value at all in deciding whether genes do play a role. Because the direct evidence on ancestry, adoption, and cross-fostering is most consistent with little or no role for genes, it is unlikely that the black-white gap has a large genetic component."^[109]

Fryer and Levitt (2006), with data from "the first large, nationally representative sample" of its kind, report finding only a very small racial difference when measuring mental function for children aged eight to twelve months, and that even these differences disappear when including a "limited set of controls". "On tests of intelligence, Blacks systematically score worse than Whites, whereas Asians frequently outperform Whites. Some have argued that genetic differences across races account for the gap. Using a newly available nationally representative data set that includes a test of mental function for children aged eight to twelve months, we find only minor racial differences in test outcomes (0.06 standard deviation units in the raw data) between Blacks and Whites that disappear with the inclusion of a limited set of controls. The only statistically significant racial difference is that Asian children score slightly worse than those of other races." They argue that their report poses "a substantial challenge to the simplest, most direct, and most often articulated genetic stories regarding racial differences in mental function." They conclude that "to the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."^[110]

The Flynn effect

The secular, international increase in test scores, commonly called the Flynn effect, is seen by Flynn and others as reason to expect the eventual convergence of average black and white IQ scores. Flynn argues that the average IQ scores in several countries have increased about 3 points per decade during the 20th century, which he and others attribute predominantly to environmental causes.^[111] This means, given the same test, the mean performance of African Americans today could be higher than the mean for white Americans in 1920, though the gains causing this appear to have occurred predominantly in the lower half of the IQ distribution.^[112] If an unknown environmental factor can cause changes in IQ over time, they argue, then contemporary differences between groups could also be due to an unknown environmental factor. One unresolved question is whether the secular IQ gains can be predominantly a real change in cognitive ability. Flynn's face-value answer to this question is "No",^[113] and some other researchers have found reason to concur. In terms of the mixture of ability factors that IQ tests were designed to measure, such as g and verbal and mathematical ability, changes in IQ scores over time are different than either within-group individual differences and between group differences.^[114][115] For example, there has been little increase over time in performance on either the forward digit-span or reverse digit-span subtests, and tests of school achievement have been less affected than tests of abstract reasoning.^[116] Other recent studies have found that g has improved substantially.^[117][118] Cranial vault size has increased and the shape changed during the last 150 years in the US; these changes must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault.^[119] It also estimated that the average white IQ in past decades was lower than current average black IQs, a fact which shows the change of IQ over time. ^[120] But while black Americans in the early 21st century may score higher than white Americans in the early 19th century, the fact remains that the roughly 1 standard deviation IQ gap between black and white Americans living at the same time has held constant since the earliest days of intelligence testing, convincing some observers like Richard Lynn that the black-white gap in the U.S. is not only genetic, but 100% genetic. Indeed Arthur Jensen is struck by how consistent the gap has been, despite the enormous rise in the scores of both races.

Health

Percentage of children aged 1-5 with blood lead levels at least 10 µg/dL. Black and Hispanic children have measurably higher levels than white children. High levels of lead at an early age may affect intelligence. Main article: Health and intelligence Main article: Race and health

Numerous explanations beside genetics have been proposed to account for the IQ gaps in the U.S.^[121] High rates of low birth-weight babies, lower rates of breastfeeding, and exposure to toxins are some factors. The Flynn effect is often cited as evidence that average IQ scores have changed greatly and rapidly, for reasons poorly understood, thus the IQ gap between races could change in the future or is changing, especially if the Flynn effect started earlier for Whites.

High levels of lead at an early age may affect intelligence; studies indicate that black and Hispanic children have measurably higher levels than white children. A 10 µg/dL increase in blood lead at 24 months of age is associated with a 5.8-point lower IQ later in life.^[122] In 1976 77.8% of all children had at least this much lead in their blood.^[123]

Exposure to lead is frequently attributed to housing conditions including lead based paint, which is no longer used but has accumulated in older buildings; people of lower economic means are more frequently exposed to lead from housing.^[124]

Stereotype threat

Main article: Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat is the fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one identifies; this fear may in turn lead to an impairment of performance.^[125] Testing situations that highlight the fact that intelligence is being measured tend to lower the scores of individuals from racial-ethnic groups that already score lower on average. Stereotype threat conditions cause larger than expected IQ differences among groups but do not fully explain the gaps found in non-threatening test conditions.

Quality of education

Some researchers have written that studies that find test performance gaps between races even after adjusting for education level, such as the analysis found in The Bell Curve, fail to adjust for the quality of education. Not all high school graduates or college graduates have received the same quality of education. A 2006 study reported that years of education is an inadequate measure of the educational experience among multicultural elders, and that adjusting for quality of education greatly reduced the overall effect of racial differences on the tests.^[126] A 2004 study reported that quality of education and cultural experience influence how older African Americans approach neuropsychological tasks and concluded that adjustment for these variables may improve specificity of neuropsychological measures.^[127] Yet another study reported that, although significant differences were observed between the ethnic groups when matched for years of education, equating for literacy level eliminated all performance differences between African Americans and European Americans on both cancellation tasks which assess visual scanning^[128] (like reaction time tests, cancellation task tests are sometimes regarded as "culture free" tests of intelligence). Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin wrote in their 2006 book that unequal distributions of inexperienced teachers and of racial concentrations in schools can explain all of the increased achievement gap between grades 3 and 8.^[129] In recent years there have also been studies into the degrees in which many minorities, especially blacks, have internalized pathologies about their supposed lack of intelligence and the effects it has in their self-confidence, quality of learning and achievement.^[130] Additionally, Jensen's studies (Jensen, 1974b) show that 7% of black children of black professionals have mean IQs below that of white children from low-income families, yet this seems to have little to no detriment on the black children's success.^[131]

A 2004 study in South Africa found highly significant effects for both level and quality of education within the black African first language groups taking the Wechsler IQ tests. The scores of black African first language groups with advantaged education were comparable with the US standardization, whereas scores for black African first language participants with disadvantaged education were significantly lower than this. The study cautioned that faulty conclusions may be drawn about the effects of ethnicity and the potential for neuropsychological misdiagnosis.^[132]

Racial discrimination in education

Roslyn Arlin Mickelson writes that racial discrimination in education arises from actions of institutions or individual state actors, their attitudes and ideologies, or processes that systematically treat students from different racial/ethnic groups disparately or inequitably.^[133] Despite advancement in education reform efforts, to this day African American students continue to experience inequities within the educational system. Hala Elhoweris, Kagendo Mutua, Negmeldin Alsheikh and Pauline Holloway conducted a study of the effect of students' ethnicity on teachers' educational decision making. The results of this study indicated that the student's ethnicity did make a difference in the teachers' referral decisions for gifted and talented educational programs.^[134] Recently, a number of scholars have examined the issue of disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs^[135][136]

Teachers' perceptions of a students cultural background may affect school achievement. African American students with African American cultural backgrounds, for example, have been found to benefit from culturally responsive teaching.^[137] In a 2003 study researchers found that teachers perceived students with African American culture-related movement styles as lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need special education services than students with standard movement styles irrespective of race or other academic indicators.^[138]

Ellis Cose writes that low expectations may have a negative impact on the achievement of minorities. He writes that black people did not need to read The Bell Curve to be aware of the low expectations held for them by the majority culture. He recalls examples of low expectations from his teachers in school who regarded his use of AAVE as "laziness" and teachers who did not feel it was important to purchase new text books because they did not expect the students to be able to read anything complex. He contrasts these low expectations with the high expectations philosophy of Xavier University where, using the ideas Whimbey articulated in his book Intelligence can be Taught teachers created a program called SOAR. SOAR raised the performance of black students and lead Xavier to become the university that sends the greatest number of black students to medical school in the United States. The SOAR program produced gains equivalent to 120 points on an SAT test. Cose writes that "..we must treat people, whatever their color, as if they have unlimited intellectual capacity."^[139]

Structural equation models have been used to test for possible uncommon factors in the development of children belonging to different ethnic groups, which would include the results of racial discrimination. However, these tests have concluded that black, white, Hispanic and Asian children follow developmental processes which are "nearly identical."^[140][141]

Caste-like minorities

The book Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth claims that it is not lower average intelligence that leads to the lower status of ethnic minorities, it is instead their lower status that leads to their lower average intelligence test scores. The following table from the same book compares social status or caste position to test scores and school success in countries around the world.^[142]

Group Differences Around the World

	Status or Caste Position		Test Scores, School Success
Country	High	Low	High	Low
United States[143]	Whites	Blacks	Whites	Blacks
	Asians	Latinos	Asians	Latinos
	East Asians	Southeast Asians	East Asians	Southeast Asians
	Whites	American Indians[144]	Whites	American Indians
Northern Ireland[145]	Protestants	Catholics	Protestants	Catholics
Australia[146]	Whites	Aborigines	Whites	Aborigines
New Zealand[147]	Whites	Maori	Whites	Maori
South Africa[148]	English	Afrikaners	English	Afrikaners
Belgium[149]	Flemish	French	Flemish	French
Israel[150]	Jews	Arabs	Jews	Arabs
	Western Jews	Eastern Jews	Western Jews	Eastern Jews
India[151]	Nontribals	Tribal people	Nontribals	Tribal people
	Brahmin	Dalit	Brahmin	Dalit
	High caste	Low caste	High caste	Low caste
Czechoslovakia[152]	Slovaks	Gypsies	Slovaks	Gypsies
Notes: Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. The Flemish are not a minority in Belgium. The PISA 2006 results for schoolchildren 15 years of age showed that the Flemish outperformed the Walloons (French).[153] Afrikaans speakers make up the majority of the white population; most South Africans, however, identified themselves in the census as black, and speak one of the Bantu languages as their home language[154]

Viewpoints of notable scientists and researchers

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (April 2008)

Given the observed differences in IQ scores between certain groups, a great deal of debate revolves around the significance of these observations. Various interpretations of test data lead to a multitude of conflicting conclusions as to which specific explanations the data support.

The range of views among contemporary scholars include:

• James Flynn argues that differences in cognitive abilities between races exist and are of social/environmental origin.
• Arthur Jensen argues that differences in cognitive abilities between races exist and are caused by both social/environmental disparities and also genetic differences between races.
• Ashley Montagu and Joseph L. Graves, amongst others, argue that race is not a biological concept, but rather is socially constructed, and hence measurements of IQ differences between races cannot reflect an underlying intrinsic biological cause.^{[155][156][157]}
• Robert Sternberg argues that the use of differences in test scores to argue for race differences in intelligence is a case of the inappropriate use of tests in different groups.

Researchers who believe that there is no significant genetic contribution to race differences in intelligence include:

Flynn (1980), Brody (1992), Neisser et al. (1996), Nisbett (1998), Mackintosh (1998), Jencks and Phillips (1998), and Fish (2002).

Some scientists who emphasize cultural explanations do not necessarily exclude a small genetic influence. Reynolds (2000) suggests up to 20% genetic influence be included in the cultural explanation.

Researchers who believe that there are significant genetic contributions to race differences in intelligence include:

McGurk (1953), Garrett (1961), Shuey (1966), Shockley (1968), Eysenck (1971), Baker (1974), Loehlin et al. (1975), Vernon (1979), Lynn (1991a), Waldman et al. (1994), Scarr (1995), Levin (1997), Jensen (1998b), Rushton (2000), and Gottfredson (2005b).^[158]

Coming advances in genetics and genomics are expected to soon provide the ability to test hypotheses about group differences more rigorously than has as yet been possible.^[159]

Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs and Steel instead argues that historical differences in economic and technological development for different geographic areas can be explained by differences in geography (which affects factors like population density and spread of new technology) and differences in available crops and domesticatable animals. Richard Nisbett argues in his 2004 The Geography of Thought that some of these regional differences shaped lasting cultural traits, such as the collectivism required by East Asian rice irrigation, compared with the individualism of ancient Greek herding, maritime mercantilism, and money crops wine and olive oil^[160] However, it has been suggested that these environmental differences may operate in part by selecting for higher levels of IQ.^[161]

J. Philippe Rushton, a professor of psychology at the University of Western Ontario and the current head of the Pioneer Fund, has written a controversial book called Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective. Rushton claims in the book that race is a valid biological concept and that racial differences frequently arrange in a continuum of Mongoloids (Orientals, East Asians) at one extreme, Negroids (blacks, Africans) at the opposite extreme, and Caucasoids (whites, Europeans) in the middle.^[162] It has been heavily criticized.

Differing rates of economic growth have also been attributed to numerous factors other than racial IQ gaps such as local availability of resources, climate, and sociopolitical factors. See for example the Global Competitiveness Report, the Ease of Doing Business Index, and the Index of Economic Freedom or works by Kenneth Pomeranz,^[163] Eric Jones,^[164] Joel Mokyr,^[165] and Douglass C. North.^[166]

Criticisms

Outdated methodology

A 2006 paper by Professor Denny Borsboom argues that mainstream contemporary test analysis does not reflect substantial recent developments in the field and "bears an uncanny resemblance to the psychometric state of the art as it existed in the 1950s."^[167] It also claims that some of the most influential recent studies on group differences in intelligence, in order to show that the tests are unbiased, use outdated methodology. In particular the reliance on classical test theory rather than more sophisticated measurement models as found in item response theory. In response to criticism proponents of the genetic hypothesis claim they use a standard for intelligence known as g. g is measured by performance on test items without the influence of language or math.

Utility of research

Theories of race and intelligence have been challenged on grounds of their utility. Critics want to know what purpose such research could serve and why it has been an intense an area of focus for a few researchers. Some defend the research, saying it has egalitarian aims. IQ is, after all, a predictor of educational achievement and special needs. Accordingly, as a matter of public policy, resources can be better allocated by reducing the data to better understand the challenges; it is considered a pure science. Still others say that the true motivation for the research is the same as that of the eugenics movement and other forms of scientific racism.^[168][168] Even supporters of intelligence research have described such research as analogous to "working with dynamite" or "dangerous play" in sports.^[169]

Jensen and Rushton have justified their research in this area as being necessary to answer the question of how much white racism should be held responsible for ethnic groups’ unequal performance in certain areas. They maintain that when racism is blamed for disparities which are the result of biological differences, the result is mutual resentment, and unjustified punishment of the more successful group. They state:

[T]he view that one segment of the population is largely to blame for the problems of another segment can be even more harmful to racial harmony, by first producing demands for compensation and thereby inviting a backlash. Equating group disparities in success with racism on the part of the more successful group guarantees mutual resentment. As overt discrimination fades, still large racial disparities in success lead Blacks to conclude that White racism is not only pervasive but also insidious because it is so unobservable and “unconscious.” Whites resent that nonfalsifiable accusation and the demands to compensate Blacks for harm they do not believe they caused.^[1]

Regarding whether research in this area is desirable, John C. Loehlin wrote in 1992, "Research on racial differences in intelligence is desirable if the research is appropriately motivated, honestly done, and adequately communicated." [emphasis original] Defenders of the research suggest that both scientific curiosity and a desire to draw benefits from the research are appropriate motivations.^{[citation needed]} Researchers such as Richard Lynn have suggested that conclusions from the research can help make political decisions, such as the type of educational opportunities and expectations of achievement policy makers should have for people of different races.^{[citation needed]} Charles Murray, a political scientist of the American Enterprise Institute has used their conclusions to criticize social programs based on racial equality that fail, he claims, to recognize the realities of racial differences.^{[citation needed]}

Test construction

While the existence of average IQ test score differences has been a matter of accepted fact for decades, a great deal of controversy exists among scholars over the question of whether these score differences reflected real differences in cognitive ability. Some claim that there is no evidence for test bias since IQ tests are equally good predictors of IQ-related factors (such as school performance) for U.S. Blacks and Whites.^[170] The performance differences persist in tests and testing situations in which care has been taken to eliminate bias.^[170] It has also been suggested that IQ tests are formulated in such a way as to disadvantage minorities.^[170] Controlled studies have shown that test construction does not substantially contribute to the IQ gap.^[170] However, some psychometricians are not satisfied that the question of test bias is fully answered by these results.^{[171][172][173]}

The preponderance of evidence indicates that IQ tests measuring general intelligence are crossculturally valid. There is little or no evidence of population-specific cultural effects apart from the obvious example of language bias.^[174] For example, Robert Sternberg et al. found that the IQ of 12- to 15-year-old Kenyans predicted school grades at about the same level as they do in the West.^[175] IQ also predicted university performance equally well in African and non-African engineering students in South Africa in a 2004 study.^[176] Salgado et al. (2003) demonstrated the international generalizability of general mental ability across 10 member countries of the European Community and differences in a nation’s culture, religion, language, socioeconomic level or employment legislation did not affect the predictive validity of IQ tests.^[177]

However, other studies have found evidence for bias. A 2005 study finds some evidence that the WAIS-R is not culture-fair for Mexican Americans.^[178] Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa.^[179][180]

Source of funding

Proponents of genetic explanations of race/IQ correlation, such as Rushton, Lynn, and Jensen, have often been criticized for receiving funding from the Pioneer Fund, a group that had ties to Nazis and the eugenics of the early 20th century. The Southern Poverty Law Center considers the Pioneer Fund to be a hate group. Rushton is the current head of the Pioneer Fund and has spoken at conferences of the American Renaissance magazine, in which he has also published articles.^[181] Anti-racist Searchlight Magazine described one of these articles as a "veritable 'who’s who' of American white supremacy.".^[182]

Proponents of genetic explanations of race-IQ correlation have in turn accused their critics of suppressing scientific debate in the name of political correctness. They claim harassment and interference with both their work and funding. The Pioneer Fund, whose stated purpose is "to advance the scientific study of heredity and human differences", makes "no grants to individuals but only to research institutions, mainly universities, mostly for specialized 'niche' projects, which have difficulty attracting funds from government sources or from larger foundations".^[183]

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Rushton J. Philippe and Jensen Arthur R."Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences In Cognitive Ability" p. 240 Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 2005, Vol. 11, No. 2, 235–294 DOI: 10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235
2. ^ The Bell Curve Wars. Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America
3. ^ Race Differences in Intelligence
4. ^ [1]
5. ^ http://www.genpaku.org/skepticj/iqrace.html
6. ^ ^{a b} Intelligence, Race, and Genetics. American Psychologist. Vol 60(1), Jan 2005, 46-59.
7. ^ "Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, major law review journal concludes" Innovations Report 2005-04-26
8. ^ Broca 1873; Bean 1906; Mall 1909; Morton 1839; Pearl 1934; Vint 1934
9. ^ Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243–252
10. ^ The Struggle for Equality by Princeton University historian James M. McPherson (Princeton University Press: 1964) p. 136-7
11. ^ How Free is Free? by Leon Litwack (Harvard University Press: 2009) p. 12-14 ISBN 9780674031524
12. ^ Eugenics: America's Darkest Days
13. ^ Francis Galton: British Psychologist
14. ^ Degler 1992; Loehlin et al. 1975
15. ^ According to historian of psychology Graham Richards there was widespread critical debate within psychology about the conceptual underpinnings of this early race difference research (Richards 1997). These include Estabrooks (1928) two papers on the limitations of methodology used in the research; Dearborn and Long’s (1934) overview of the criticisms by several psychologists (Garth, Thompson, Peterson, Pinter, Herskovits, Daniel, Price, Wilkerson, Freeman, Rosenthal and C.E. Smith) in a collection they edited and Klineburg, who wrote three major critiques, one in 1928, and two in 1935. Richards also notes that with over a 1000 publications within psychology during the interwar years there had been a large internal debate. Towards the end of the time period almost all those publishing, including most of those who began with a pro-race differences stance, were firmly arguing against race differences research. Richards regards the scientific controversy to be dead at this point, although he also suggests reasons for its re-emergence in the late nineteen sixties.
16. ^ Lynn 2001 pp. 67–69
17. ^ ^{a b} Jensen 1969
18. ^ Practical Ethics
19. ^ Bill Shockley, Part 3 of 3
20. ^ William Shockley - MSN Encarta
21. ^ Shockley, William (1992). Shockley on Eugenics and Race: The Application of Science to the Solution of Human Problems. Washington, D.C.: Scott-Townsend Publishers. ISBN 978-1878465030.
22. ^ A Genetic and Cultural Odyssey: The Life and Work of L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza by Linda Stone, pages 76, 168 ISBN 0231133960.
23. ^ [2] AAA statement on race and intelligence
24. ^ ^{a b} Stalking the Wild Taboo - APA Statement on The Bell Curve - Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
25. ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (1996), The Mismeasure of Man, Sagebrush Education Resources, ISBN 0613181301
26. ^ Lewontin, Richard (2001), It Ain't Necessarily So: The Dream of the Human Genome and Other Illusions, New York review of Books, ISBN 0940322951
27. ^ What a tangled web he weaves: Race, reproductive strategies and Rushton's life history theory by Joseph L Graves
28. ^ The authors of the report agreed that IQ scores have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirmed the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics (75% in adults). Contrary to Hernstein and Murray's findings, they state that prolonged malnutrition during childhood does have long-term intellectual effects.
29. ^ amp51020077.tif
30. ^ Neisser, U. (1997). "Never a Dull Moment". American Psychologist 52: 79-81.[3]
31. ^ Gottfredson, Linda (December 13, 1994), Mainstream Science on Intelligence. Wall Street Journal, p A18.
32. ^ Mainstream science on intelligence
33. ^ AAA Statement on "Race" and Intelligence
34. ^ Achieving Equitable Education in Calhoun County
35. ^ Educational Studies: A Jrnl of the American Educ. Studies Assoc.
36. ^ For example, the policy recommendations of The Bell Curve were denounced by many.^{[citation needed]} Herrnstein and Murray (1994) wrote: "We can imagine no recommendation for using the government to manipulate fertility that does not have dangers. But this highlights the problem: The United States already has policies that inadvertently social-engineer who has babies, and it is encouraging the wrong women. If the United States did as much to encourage high-IQ women to have babies as it now does to encourage low-IQ women, it would rightly be described as engaging in aggressive manipulation of fertility. The technically precise description of America's fertility policy is that it subsidizes births among poor women, who are also disproportionately at the low end of the intelligence distribution. We urge generally that these policies, represented by the extensive network of cash and services for low-income women who have babies, be ended. (p. 548)" Two year later the 1996 U.S. welfare reform substantially cut these programs. In a discussion of the future political outcomes of an intellectually stratified society, they stated that they: "fear that a new kind of conservatism is becoming the dominant ideology of the affluent - not in the social tradition of an Edmund Burke or in the economic tradition of an Adam Smith but ’conservatism’ along Latin American lines, where to be conservative has often meant doing whatever is necessary to preserve the mansions on the hills from the menace of the slums below. (p. 518)"Moreover, they fear that an increasing welfare will create a "custodial state": "a high-tech and more lavish version of the Indian reservation of some substantial minority of the nation’s population. They also predict increasing totalitarianism: It is difficult to imagine the United States preserving its heritage of individualism, equal rights before the law, free people running their own lives, once it is accepted that a significant part of the population must be made permanent wards of the states. (p. 526)"
37. ^ Gottfredson 2005b
38. ^ ^{a b} James R. Flynn, The Black-White IQ Gap
39. ^ Roland G. Fryer Jr. and Steven D. Levitt, "Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School," The Review of Economics and Statistics 86, no. 2 (2004).
40. ^ Arthur Jensen (1998). The g Factor.
41. ^ Dolan, C. V. (1997). A note on Schönemann's refutation of Spearman's hypothesis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 32, 319-325.
42. ^ Dolan, C. V. (2000). Investigating Spearman's hypothesis by means of multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35, 21-50.
43. ^ Dolan, C. V., & Hamaker, E. L. (2001). Investigating black-white differences in psychometric IQ: Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses of WISC-R and K-ABC and a critique of the method of correlated vectors. In F. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. 6, pp. 30-59). Huntington, NY: Nova Science.
44. ^ Roth et al. 2001
45. ^ Berry, J. W. (1966). Temne and Eskimo perceptual skills. International Journal of Psychology, 1, 207-222.
46. ^ MacArthur, R. S. (1968). Some differential abilities of northern Canadian native youth. International Journal of Psychology, 3, 43-51.
47. ^ Roth, P. L., Bevier, C. A., Bobko, P., Switzer, F. S. III, & Tyler, P. (2001). Ethnic group differences in cognitive ability in employment and educational settings: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 54, 297-330.
48. ^ ^{a b} Hunt, Earl & Carlson, Jerry. Considerations Relating to the Study of Group Differences in Intelligence. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2 (2), 194-213.
49. ^ Backman, M.E. (1972) Patterns of mental abilities: ethnic, socioeconomic and sex differences. American Educational Research Journal, 9,1-12.
50. ^ Lynn, Richard (2003). The Intelligence of American Jews. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00079-5.
51. ^ Lynn, Richard (2003). The Intelligence of American Jews. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00079-5.
52. ^ Cochran, Gregory & Hardy, Jason & Harpending, Henry. Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence. Journal of Biosocial Science, Vol. 38, No. 05. (2005), pp. 659-693.
53. ^ Carretta, T. R., & Ree, M. J. (1995). Near identity of cognitive structure in sex and ethnic groups. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 149-155.
54. ^ IQ and the Wealth of Nations, Race Differences in Intelligence, and IQ and Global Inequality
55. ^ Satoshi Kanazawa, Temperature and evolutionary novelty as forces behind the evolution of general intelligence
56. ^ Steven M. Shatz, IQ and fertility: A cross-national study
57. ^ The decline of the world's IQ
58. ^ ^{a b} Relevance of education and intelligence at the national level for the economic welfare of people
59. ^ Herrnstein and Murray 1994; Lynn 1991a; Lynn 2006
60. ^ Rushton, J. P. (2006). "Lynn Richard, Race Differences in Intelligence: An Evolutionary Analysis, Washington Summit Books, Augusta, GA (2005) ISBN 1-59368-020-1, 318 pages., US$34.95". Personality and Individual Differences 40 (4): 853–855. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.004.
61. ^ Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-97510-X
62. ^ Rindermann, H. (2006). What do international student assessments measure?. Psychologische Rundschau, 57, 69–86.
63. ^ Relevance of education and intelligence for the political development of nations: Democracy, rule of law and political liberty
64. ^ National differences in intelligence and educational attainment
65. ^ Wicherts, J.M. (December, 15, 2006). The dark past, obscure present, and bright future of African IQ. 7th Annual Conference of the International Society for Intelligence Research (ISIR), San Francisco, CA, US.
66. ^ Sternberg, R. J., Nokes, C., Geissler, P. W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F., Bundy, D. A., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2001). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence, 29, 401-418.
67. ^ Sarich (2004). "Race and Behavior". Race. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. ISBN 0813340861.
68. ^ Nathan (2004]). "A review of Race: the Reality of Human Differences" (PDF). http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep03255262.pdf.
69. ^ Few U.S. Moms Meet Six-Month Breastfeeding Goal
70. ^ Breastfeeding among Low Income, African-American Women: Power, Beliefs and Decision Making by Margaret E. Bentley, Deborah L. Dee and Joan L. Jensen
71. ^ Even minute levels of lead in blood can lead to low IQ in kids
72. ^ [4]
73. ^ The Science and Politics of I.q. By Leon J. Kamin
74. ^ ^{a b c} Blackwell Synergy - Perspect on Psych Science, Volume 2 Issue 2 Page 194-213, June 2007 (Article Abstract)
75. ^ Marks, J. (1996) "Science and Race", American Behavioral Scientist 40: 123-133. doi:10.1177/0002764296040002003
76. ^ ^{a b} Cato Unbound » Blog Archive » Race and IQ
77. ^ Cato Unbound » Blog Archive » Rational Discussion of the Offensive is Okay
78. ^ doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235
79. ^ How Heritability Misleads about Race
80. ^ R. J. Sternberg (2000) Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
81. ^ David J. Bartholomew (2004) Measuring Intelligence: Facts and Fallacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
82. ^ Ian J. Deary. (2001) Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press
83. ^ Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J. and Urbina, S. (February 1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns". American Psychologist 51 (2): 77-101.
84. ^ Gottfredson, L. S. (Ed.). (1997). Intelligence and social policy [Special issue]. Intelligence, 24(1).
85. ^ Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24(1), 13-23.
86. ^ Robert Plomin, John C. DeFries, Gerald E. McClearn, and Peter McGuffin (2000) Behavioral Genetics. Worth Publishers; Fourth Edition edition
87. ^ Brody, N. (1992). Intelligence (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
88. ^ Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1988). The IQ controversy, the media and public policy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
89. ^ Lewontin, R. (1970) "Race and Intelligence". Science and Public Affairs March, pp. 2-8
90. ^ Layzer, David. (1974) "Heritability analyses of IQ scores: Science or numerology?" Science 183 pp. 1259-66
91. ^ Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder Share Genetic Roots
92. ^ Jianxin S, et al. Common variants on chromosome 6p22.1 are associated with schizophrenia. July 1, 2009, Nature
93. ^ Stefansson H, et al. Common variants conferring risk of schizophrenia. July 1, 2009, Nature
94. ^ Purcell SM, et al. Common polygenic variation contributes to risk of schizophrenia that overlaps with bipolar disorder. July 1, 2009, Nature
95. ^ Reviewed in Neisser et al. (1996). Data from the NLSY as reported in figure adapted from Herrnstein and Murray (1994), p. 288.
96. ^ Jensen (1998) The g Factor
97. ^ Flynn (1980) and Flynn (1999)
98. ^ http://psychology.uwo.ca/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability
99. ^ http://www.innovations-report.de/html/berichte/studien/bericht-43536.html Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, major law review journal concludes
100. ^ Rushton and Jensen (2005a), cited in "Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, scientists conclude in major law journal", and Murray (2005)
101. ^ Reviewed by Rushton and Jensen (2005).
102. ^ Plomin (2005). "The quest for quantitative trait loci associated with intelligence". Intelligence 34: 513. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.01.001.
103. ^ Amy Harmon. In DNA Era, New Worries About Prejudice. The New York Times. November 17, 2007.
104. ^ Antonio Regalado. Scientist's Study Of Brain Genes Sparks a Backlash. The Wall Street Journal. June 16, 2006.
105. ^ For example: Nisbett (2005), Suzuki and Aronson (2005), Sternberg (2005), Dickens (2005)
106. ^ Heredity, Evironment, and Race differences in IQ. A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005) Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310
107. ^ Loehlin, J.C., Lindzey, G., & Spuhler, J. (1975). Racial Differences in Intelligence. San Francisco: Freeman.
108. ^ http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2007doublestandards.pdf
109. ^ Genetic Differences and School Readiness Dickens, William T. The Future of Children - Volume 15, Number 1, Spring 2005, pp. 55-69
110. ^ Roland G. Fryer Jr. and Steven D. Levitt, "Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School," The Review of Economics and Statistics 86, no. 2 (2004). Testing for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children
111. ^ Flynn 1987, Flynn 1987b, Flynn 1999, Flynn 1999b
112. ^ Colom et al. 2005
113. ^ Flynn 1999
114. ^ Flynn (2007)
115. ^ Wicherts et al. (2004) wrote that "the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure". In other words, according to this study, some of the inter-generational difference in IQ is attributable to bias or other artifacts, and not real gains in general intelligence or higher-order ability factors.
116. ^ James Robert Flynn (2007) What is Intelligence?: Beyond the Flynn Effect. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
117. ^ Are cognitive differences between immigrant and majority groups diminishing?Te Nijenhuis Jan; De Jong Mart-Jan; Evers Arne; Van Der Flier Henk; European journal of personality (Eur. j. pers.) 2004, vol. 18, no5, pp. 405-434
118. ^ Secular Gains in Fluid Intelligence: Evidence from the Culture-Fair Intelligence Test Roberto Colom and Oscar Garcia-Lopez, Journal of Biosocial Science (2003), 35: 33-39 Cambridge University Press
119. ^ "Changes in vault dimensions must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault." Secular change in craniofacial morphology "During the 125 years under consideration, cranial vaults have become markedly higher, somewhat narrower, with narrower faces. The changes in cranial morphology are probably in large part due to changes in growth at the cranial base due to improved environmental conditions. The changes are likely a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic changes over this period." Cranial change in Americans: 1850-1975.
120. ^ None of the above - The New Yorker
121. ^ Joel Wiesen, "An Annotated List of Many Possible Reasons for the Black-White Mean Score Differences Seen With Many Cognitive Ability Tests: Notes to File," Applied Personnel Research, March 18, 2005.
122. ^ Low-Level Lead Exposure, Intelligence and Academic Achievement: A Long-term Follow-up Study David C. Bellinger PhD, MSc1, Karen M. Stiles PhD, MN1, and Herbert L. Needleman MD1. Pediatrics Vol. 90 No. 6 December 1992, pp. 855-861
123. ^ Blood Lead Levels — United States, 1999–2002 CDC.
124. ^ Mfume Calls Lead Paint Poisoning "The Silent Epidemic" NAACP Press Release 17 July 01
125. ^ Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005
126. ^ Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders Jennifer J. Manly, Diane M. Jacobs, Pegah Touradji, Scott A. Small and Yaakov Stern
127. ^ Acculturation, Reading Level, and Neuropsychological Test Performance Among African American Elders Jennifer J. Manly, Desiree A. Byrd, Pegah Touradji, Yaakov Stern‌
128. ^ Cancellation test performance in African American, Hispanic, and White elderly Desiree A. Byrd, Pegah Touradji, Ming-Xin Tang and Jennifer J. Manly
129. ^ School Quality and the Black-White Achievement Gap Eric A. Hanushek and Steven G. Rivkin 2006
130. ^ Race and Intelligence: Separating Science from Myth By Jefferson M. Fish
131. ^ Race, Social Class, and Individual Differences in I.Q. By Sandra Scarr
132. ^ Cross-cultural Effects on IQ Test Performance: A Review and Preliminary Normative Indications on WAIS-III Test Performance Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Volume 26, Number 7 / October 2004
133. ^ When Are Racial Disparities in Education the Result of Racial Discrimination? A Social Science Perspective by Roslyn Arlin Mickelson University of North Carolina at Charlotte
134. ^ Effect of Children's Ethnicity on Teachers' Referral and Recommendation Decisions in Gifted and Talented Programs Journal article by Negmeldin Alsheikh, Hala Elhoweris, Pauline Holloway, Kagendo Mutua; Remedial and Special Education, Vol. 26, 2005
135. ^ (Salend, Garrick Duhaney, & Montgomery, 2002; Townsend, 2002)
136. ^ Racial Inequity in Special Education. Losen, Daniel J., Ed.; Orfield, Gary, Ed. Harvard Education Publishing Group.
137. ^ (Gay, 2000; Irvine & Armento, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 1994, 2001)
138. ^ The Effects of African American Movement Styles on Teachers' Perceptions and Reactions Journal article by Scott T. Bridgest, Audrey Davis Mccray, La Vonne I. Neal, Gwendolyn Webb-Johnson; Journal of Special Education, Vol. 37, 2003
139. ^ Color-Blind Ellis Cose. Page 50
140. ^ Rowe, David C., Vazsonyi, Alexander T. and Flannery, Daniel J. [0]=2115 No More Than Skin Deep: Ethnic and Racial Similarity in Developmental Process. Psychological Review 101,3 (July 1994): 396-413
141. ^ Rowe, David C. and Hobart H. Cleveland. Academic achievement in Blacks and Whites: Are the developmental processes similar? Intelligence Volume 23, Issue 3, November-December 1996, Pages 205-228.
142. ^ Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth by Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos. Page 192. (The footnotes given are also from this book.)
143. ^ The Bell Curve and many other places.
144. ^ Church Academic Achievement
145. ^ Lynn et al. Home Background
146. ^ Klich Aboriginal Cognition and Psychological Science; Clark and Halford, Does Cognitive Style Account for Cultural Differences?
147. ^ Ogbu, Minority Education and Caste
148. ^ Verster and Prinsloo, The Diminishing Test Performance Gap
149. ^ Raven, The Raven Progressive Matrices esp fig. 2
150. ^ Kugelmass et al., Patterns of Intellectual Ability
151. ^ Das and Khurana, Catse and Cognitive Processes
152. ^ Adamovic, Intellectual Development and Level of Knowledge in Gypsy Pupils
153. ^ http://www.pisa.oecd.org/dataoecd/31/60/39705905.xls
154. ^ http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/RSAPrimary.pdf; South African Census Results, see graph on pg. 8 (15 in the.pdf)
155. ^ Lieberman, Leonard; Alice Littlefield and Larry T. Reynolds. "The Debate over Race: Thirty Years and Two Centuries Later." in "Race and I.Q." (1975) Ashley Montague (ed.) ISBN 0-19-510220-7. ""Those who study I.Q. scores of different groups do so with the assumption that there are homogeneous races, when in fact that is not the case. Populations being very similar to each other to begin with, and being interbred with eah other - and humans have interbred throughout their evolution - makes it impossible to explain differences in I.Q. scores largely on the basis of heredity".
156. ^ Montagu, Ashley "The I.Q. Mythology" in "Race and I.Q." (1975) Ashley Montagu (ed) ISBN 0-19-510220-7: "I have stated, and I think the statement long overdue, that both the term "race" and the term "IQ" are delusive because in the one case the social conception of "race" was the deliberate invention of a slave-owning caste attempting to justify its conduct, and in the other case because "IQ" tests do not measure what they have generally been claimed to measure, namely, innate intelligence ... The statistical treatment of data in any investigation may be quite unexceptional, but when unexceptional statistical methods are applied to the analysis of unsound data to begin with, based on assumptions that are equally unsound, one can only end up with conclusions that are equally unsound. Such are the erroneous constructs of "race" and "IQ"."
157. ^ Graves, Joseph, L. "The Race Myth: Why we Pretend Race Exists in America". (2004) Dutton, New York, New York. p174. "The Bell Curve's arguments are plausible only if one assumes that biologically defined races exist within our species and that they correspond to the socially defined American races, that IQ really does determine the majority of the differential in social stature in societies, and that IQ tests reliably measure all pertinent aspects of cognitive function and are unbiased.
158. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Race_and_intelligence/references
159. ^ Pinker (2006), Rowe (2005), Stock (2002) pp. 44–47.
160. ^ (pp. 34-35).
161. ^ This theory is discussed by Jensen (1998b) (pp. 435-437), Lynn (1991b) and Rushton (2000) in general and by both Wade (2006) and Steve Sailer with respect to Guns, Germs, and Steel. See Race and intelligence (Explanations)#Rushton's application of r-K theory. .. Voight et al. (2006) state generally that "a number of recent studies have detected more signals of adaptation in non-African populations than in Africans, and some of those studies have conjectured that non-Africans might have experienced greater pressures to adapt to new environments than Africans have" (Kayser et al. 2003, Akey et al. 2004, Storz et al. 2004, Stajich and Hahn 2005, Carlson et al. 2005).
162. ^ Rushton, J. P. (1995) (PDF). Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective (2nd special abridged ed.). Port Huron, MI: Charles Darwin Research Institute. http://www.charlesdarwinresearch.org/Race_Evolution_Behavior.pdf.
163. ^ Pomeranz, Kenneth (2001). The Great Divergence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
164. ^ Jones, Eric (1997). The European Miracle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
165. ^ Mokyr, Joel (1992). The Lever of Riches. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
166. ^ North, Douglass (1976). The Rise of the Western World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
167. ^ The attack of the psychometricians. Denny Borsboom. Psychometrika Vol. 71, No. 3, 425–440. September 2006.
168. ^ ^{a b} e.g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386–387
169. ^ Hunt & Carlson, in press
170. ^ ^{a b c d} Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J. Jr., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J. et al. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101.
171. ^ Dolan, C. V. (1997). A note on Schönemann's refutation of Spearman's hypothesis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 32, 319–325.
172. ^ Dolan, C. V. (2000). Investigating Spearman's hypothesis by means of multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35, 21–50.
173. ^ Dolan, C. V., & Hamaker, E. L. (2001). Investigating Black-White differences in psychometric IQ: Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses of WISC-R and K-ABC and a critique of the method of correlated vectors. In F. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. 6, pp. 30–59). Huntington, NY: Nova Science.
174. ^ http://www.charlesdarwinresearch.org/PRSL2007.pdf
175. ^ Sternberg, R. J., Nokes, C., Geissler, P. W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F., Bundy, D. A. & Grigorenko, E. L. 2001 The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: a case study in Kenya. Intelligence 29, 401–418.
176. ^ Construct validity of Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices for African and non-African engineering students in South Africa.
177. ^ Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N., Moscoso, S., Bertua, C. & Fruyt, F. D. 2003 International validity generalization of GMA and cognitive abilities: a European community meta-analysis. Pers. Psychol. 56, 573–605.
178. ^ Culture-Fair Cognitive Ability Assessment Steven P. Verney Assessment, Vol. 12, No. 3, 303-319 (2005)
179. ^ Cross-cultural effects on IQ test performance: a review and preliminary normative indications on WAIS-III test performance. Shuttleworth-Edwards AB, Kemp RD, Rust AL, Muirhead JG, Hartman NP, Radloff SE. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2004 Oct;26(7):903-20.
180. ^ Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton, Skuy, and Bons (2004) 1*, Leah K. Hamilton1, Betty R. Onyura1 and Andrew S. Winston International Journal of Selection and Assessment Volume 14 Issue 3 Page 278 - September 2006
181. ^ http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?pid=214#27
182. ^
183. ^ The Pioneer Fund, Inc.

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External links

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Collective statements

• APA Task Force Examines the Knowns and Unknowns of Intelligence
• Statement on "Race" and Intelligence. American Anthropological Association. Adopted December 1994.
• Mainstream Science on Intelligence. Intelligence, v24 n1 p. 13–23 January–February 1997

Review papers

• James Flynn and Charles Murray debate – news summary
• June 2005 issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol. 11, No. 2.
  • Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability J. Philippe Rushton & Arthur R. Jensen
  • There Are No Public-Policy Implications Robert J. Sternberg
  • What if the Hereditarian Hypothesis is True? Linda S. Gottfredson
  • Heredity, Environment, and Race Differences in IQ Richard E. Nisbett
  • The Cultural Malleability of Intelligence and Its Impact on the Racial/Ethnic Hierarchy Lisa Suzuki & Joshua Aronson
  • Wanted: More Race Realism, Less Moralistic Fallacy J. Philippe Rushton & Arthur R. Jensen
• Race, Genetics and IQ Richard E. Nisbett (PDF)
• The Inequality Taboo Charles Murray archived version
• The Black-White Test Score Gap (1998) online (page-image) version of ISBN 0-8157-4609-1

Others

• Crippled by Their Culture - Race doesn't hold back America's black rednecks. Nor does racism by Thomas Sowell
• Race and IQ: Part 1, Part 2, by Thomas Sowell
• The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on IQ and race
• (Skeptic Magazine): Two book reviews, by Paul R. Gross and Alondra Oubre, of Sarich’s and Miele’s book, Race: The Reality of Human Differences
• Criticism on source material of Bell Curve book
• Poverty and Brain Development in Early Childhood 1999 report
• Miscellaneous articles by Richard Lynn et al.
• Are IQ Tests Biased?
• Scholars Provide an Overview of Explanations for Black-White Test Score Gap
• School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps
• A review of the field (January 2006) Kohn, Marek, "This racist undercurrent in the tide of genetic research: As taboos fall away, there's a danger that denial of racial difference will be replaced with uncritical acceptance," The Guardian.
• The Lessons of the Ashkenazim: Groups and Genes, Steven Pinker, June 2006, The New Republic.

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